Author: Vernon Gambetta
Training Session Considerations
Each training session should a have general theme. This general theme in turn should be supported by objectives for each component of the training session that are very specific and measurable. When planning an individual training session, ask yourself what do I most need to accomplish? How does that fit into the bigger picture? Carefully consider the time available. The key is to design the sessions so that there is a seamless flow from one workout into another, so that even though the focus is on that individual workout it is always placed in the context of the workout leading into and out of it. The ultimate goal is the cumulative training effect, which is what occurs in the long term. Where does the workout fit within the Microcycle plan? The workout is only one component of the big picture. To achieve this look carefully at complementary components that make up the sessions, both intra and inter workouts. Training sessions are classified as to the emphasis of the session. The emphasis can be on a teaching, training or in-season a stabilizing, sometimes called a maintenance emphasis. Teaching and training emphasis sessions will occupy significantly more time than a stabilization workout. In the teaching workout make sure it is correct the first time. Do not be in a hurry; take time to attend to details and individual needs. Allow more time for individual drills and exercises when you are teaching. The training emphasis workout is the refining process. This will involve more repetition. It may not take more time, and it demands constant attention to detail. Once the season begins or emphasis changes in a training cycle stabilization workouts can be emphasized. The theme here is to maintain what has been done before. Make sure that there is always an injury prevention component in each workout. This is most easily addressed in the warm-up as remedial work. Consideration needs to be given on how to incorporate recovery given the constraints of most situations. Self-massage, shaking and stretching as well as intra workout nutrition in the form of hydration is the most basic and practical form of recovery intra workout recovery. The basis of planning the individual training session is the modular training concept that will make planning and implementation of workouts very easy. The training module is defined as specific combinations and sequences of exercises that are designed to be very specific and compatible. The exercises are carefully selected to sequence and flow from one exercise to the next within the module. Each module is designed to focus on one particular component that should fit with the other modules. The volume and intensity for the exercises within each module is determined for each session based on analysis of the previous session. A training session is nothing more than a collection of modules. The actual design of the session should carefully consider progression, sequence, time allocation and integration with skill workouts. Training must be targeted and directed to optimizing training time. Training is cumulative. It has been my experience that one session can break an athlete, but one session cannot make an athlete. Focus on the absolute need to do, minimize the nice to do. Training components have a synergistic relationship, the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Placing the components together is much like putting together a giant mosaic. All components must be trained throughout all phases of the training year. Just the emphasis and mix should change. When training a group, carefully plan to meet individual needs in a group context. Everyone will not progress and learn at the same rate. The way to organize this is to group within the workout. Evaluation is a constant ongoing process that should be part of each training session. Training equals testing and testing equals training. This approach will provide constant feedback. Never lose sight of the fact that the ultimate test is the competition itself.
Periodization in Perspective
Matveyev did not invent Periodization. He was one of many who formalized the concept. Because he was Russian, and the Soviet Union was the dominant geopolitical force in the communist bloc, Soviet ideology tended to prevail even in sport. I believe this explains the dominant influence of the Soviets in the literature of training methodology. Certainly others like Harre in the GDR, Nadori in Hungary all made significant contributions. Most of what we see in the literature today, including the work of Tudor Bompa, who has done much to popularize the concept in North America, is basically a rehash of the Soviet literature. Not much has been done to modify, study and change to adapt the concept to the contemporary challenges that exist today. It is a much different sport environment than it was even as short a time as twenty years ago. Previously where the focus was the Olympic games, hence quadrennial cycles, now there are more frequent world championships and high level competitions in many sports. Competition schedules are not as clearly defined. In most sports, especially ate elite level, there is no off-season. None of the literature on Periodization has ever effectively addressed team sports. In addition one would be naïve not to recognize the huge impact systematic doping had on the development of the former eastern bloc sport development systems. In fact much of the Periodization was based on sophisticated manipulation of drug cycles.
Some More Biomechanics and Coaching
Once you understand how the body functions as a kinetic chain then the next step is to train movements not muscles. The basic movements are rotating, bending, extending, pushing, reaching, and pulling. Why is this so important? Neurologically the brain does not recognize individual muscles; rather it recognizes patterns of movement in response to sensory input. The muscles are slaves of the brain. Isolation of specific muscles does not appropriately emphasize dynamic, multi-dimensional development of patterns. Traditionally we have been taught the opposite. We learn individual muscles, but it is through movement that the muscles integrate and work together to produce and reduce force. Traditionally we study muscles in the anatomical position, but movement does not occur in the anatomical position. Movement occurs in reaction to gravity, ground reaction forces, and momentum. The Central Nervous System is the command station that controls and directs all movement. The CNS calls for preprogrammed patterns of movement that can be modified in countless ways to react appropriately to gravity, ground reaction forces, and momentum. Each activity is subjected to further refinements and adjustments by feedback from the body’s proprioceptors. This process ensures optimal neuromuscular control and efficiency of function. What are the mechanical implications of this in training? In strength training this tells us to use multiple joint movements rather than isolated movements. The gait cycle is the basis for all human motion. The fundamental assumption is that we are bipedal terrestrial beings. Virtually everything we do in sport is reciprocal, that is the limbs working in opposition. Gait is characterized by a stance phase and swing phase in walking and a stance and flight phase in running. Muscle activity and the timing of muscle firing are predictable as gait progresses from walking to sprinting. The biomechanical implications of this are far reaching. It will impact the selection of drills, strength training exercises, plyometric exercises and rehab techniques. Understanding the gait cycle and its global implication for movement have greatly influenced the postures and positions that I use for various exercises. For example based on recruitment and function most of the core training I do now is done standing and moving in order to engage the muscles of the core in the diagonal rotational patterns as they function in movement relative to gravity. There has been much talk about movement as open or closed chain. This is somewhat of an artificial distinction when one looks closely at movement, especially the gait cycle. Movement is the timing of opening and closing the chain. In running the swing leg (leg not on the ground) results in transfer of momentum to the supporting leg. This occurs as one body segment decelerates the next segment in the chain begins to accelerate as momentum is transferred from one segment to the other. Another example is the force that properly directed arm action can impart through other body segments to the ground in sprinting. Biomechanics can really help to make a clear distinction between similar movements and same movements in the search for the highest degree of specificity in training. Remember that the highest degree of specificity is the actual event or movement. Unfortunately that does not afford the ability to overload in order to improve. Therefore as coaches we look for derivatives or parts of the movement or the event in order to train the actual movement or event to be better. To make this process more exact we need to thoroughly understand the biomechanics of the actual movement. It is common to see pitchers and quarterbacks throwing from their knees with the stated goal to improve “arm strength.” From a biomechanical perspective this may be counterproductive. Throwing involves the whole kinetic chain therefore taking large segments out of the action like the legs will interfere with timing and could put more strain on the arm and shoulder than the actual act of throwing. Another example is alternate leg bounding to improve speed. The goal of this drill is to decease contact time, in actual fact alternate leg bounding results in contact time two times greater than what occurs in actual sprinting. It looks like the movements that occur in running but it is similar not the same. Another example is the use of underweight and overweight balls for the pitcher. We found through biomechanical analysis that there was very little difference throwing an underweight or an overweight ball as long as they were not too heavy or too light. Therefore this is a viable training activity that is biomechanically the same for the pitcher. Use knowledge of biomechanics of movement to design drills and exercise that will give maximum return for the time invested. The training time will be more effective because it will have more direct transfer and time will be better utilized. If you look at a relatively simple movement like distance running from a biomechanical perspective it can be quite revealing. The average distance runner takes approximately 1,000 to 1,500-foot strikes per mile. Each leg bears the weight of the entire body, as both feet never touch the ground at the same time in running. The force of landing is approximately three times body weight in .3 to .4 tenths of a second depending on speed of the run. That means a 150 pound runner is placing 450 pounds of force on each leg, every stride. What can you do with this information? How can this be used to define or modify a training program or rehab an injured runner? Very simply most distance coaches hold strength training for the legs in distain. The fact is that strengthening the legs has the potential to increase stride length and help absorb the shock of landing. Therefore from a biomechanical perspective distance runners should do specific leg strength work. It is not necessary to be a biomechaist to think biomechanically. There are a few principles of movement that explain how all sport skills are done. Learn and apply those principles to improve your coaching
Biomechanics and Coaching
Biomechanics is the science of human motion. It is a science that helps us to understand the human body as a system of relationships and interactions that produce smooth efficient movement. It studies the effects of internal and external forces on the human body in both movement and rest. The challenge is to make this science that can be quite technical and complex practical and applied. I have found it helps to think of the big picture, think of whole movements not individual muscles. Visualize and actualize how the parts fit together. Movement should flow; there should be no herky-jerky movements. Look at the movement in the context of the end result. It is not necessary to be a biomechanist, but you can think biomechically to improve your effectiveness as a coach, trainer or therapist. It is important to remember that biomechanics as a science does not stand-alone. There is a convergence of the sport sciences that leads to optimum performance. The coach should have a basic understanding of how all the sciences interact in a practical applied manner. For example mechanically correct technique will result in more efficient movements, which results in less energy cost to perform the movement. I prefer to think of human motion and the subsequent performance as the interaction of three movement constants. Those constants are the body, ground and gravity. The body is central. It is an intricate system of levers and motors (muscles) that enable use to produce or reduce the necessary force to produce the desired movement in three planes of motion. Gravity is the second movement constant; it serves to load the system. It is always there; we live in a gravitationally enriched environment. Movement involves attempting to beat and cheat gravity because gravity is always trying to best us. The third constant is the ground. It is from the ground we actually derive force; we are terrestrial beings that must learn to use the ground effectively. We learn and adapt rapidly to varied surfaces. We must understand that we get out of the ground what we put into it. This is called ground reaction force. Typical ground reaction forces for athletic activities are: Walking 1.2 – 2.0 x body weight, Running 2.0 – 3.0 x body weight, Sprinting 7.5 x body weight, Long Jump Takeoff 10.9 x body weight, Lay-up Landing 8.9 x body weight, and cutting 3 x body weight. Typically these forces are imparted to the ground in very short periods of time. In World Class sprint performance the amount of time the sprinters foot is on the track can range from 0.08 to 0.10 second per foot contact. This represents Impulse, which is the amount of force that the athlete can put into the ground in the least amount of time. In order to apply biomechanics it is imperative to understand the distinction between technique and style. For example a high leg kick in pitching is an example of individual style. At the moment of truth, which is the point of release every pitcher must do certain things to achieve results, regardless of how they look getting to that point. Do not copy the performers individual style. Look beyond individual personal style points and find the underlying principle that enables that movement to be effective. Coach that! Look for the keys that make them able to achieve their performances. Remember, everyone has a movement signature that is as individually unique as a fingerprint. Therefore it is important to carefully observe and study the athlete before making any significant changes in their technique. Make sure that what you see is what is detracting from their performance. There is no secret code that needs to be cracked to elicit peak performance, just some simple laws of motion that must be understood and applied.
Training – Some Random Thoughts
What is training? Training is not about the hurt, pain, not about puking and being at the max in each workout. That is not training. Training is systematic; it incorporates hard workouts and easy workouts to allow the body to adapt. Work is easy, training is hard. Anyone can do mindless work that wears out the body; not very many can focus and put the pieces together to systematically improve performance over time.Training to achieve athletic excellence is about consistent mindful effort that goal driven. You don't need to be spectacular in training, but you must be consistent, steady and focused. The spectacular will come from the consistency. The effects of training accumulate over time. The process cannot be hurried. Focus on the fundamentals and build on basics and let the complexity happen. Train don't strain.Remember the old adage: Nothing easily attained is ever worthwhile and nothing worthwhile is easily attained.
Where is the Athleticism?
Where have all the athletes gone? At first that may seem like a very naïve statement, but lets examine it further. Look beyond the numbers, the spectacular performances at the elite levels of sport. Injuries are skyrocketing. What is missing? It is athleticism. We know it when we see it! We talk about it, but do we know how to develop it? What is it? Lets begin by defining the term. Athleticism is the ability to execute athletic movements (Run, Jump, Throw, Pull, Push, Extend, Bend et.) at optimum speed with precision, style and grace. It is certainly not a very complicated definition. It is easy to see when someone has it. It is certainly inherent in the successful performer in any sport. My observation is that in sport, even though performance standards continue to skyrocket we are seeing less and less athleticism, especially at the developmental levels. With increased early specialization and an emphasis on specificity we have sacrificed overall athleticism. Sometimes we are lead to believe it is an either-or proposition. Produce a better athlete or produce a better sport player with refined specific skills. Ultimately the goal is to produce the best possible adaptable athlete who plays a particular sport. In this case not only will performance be enhanced, but injuries will be reduced. Some of the downside is the apparent conflict in terms of time and effort. With the same amount of training time available is it possible to train to improve athleticism without sacrificing specific skill training? First of all we need to eliminate the distinction, the two are not mutually exclusive. The two are co-dependent and intertwined, one enhances the other. There is time within the context of the existing training structure to fit in athleticism components. It just needs to be made a priority. There is a saying that “You don’t need to see different things, but rather to see things differently.” Sometimes we overlook the obvious. In the incessant search to improve performance we have gotten away from the essence of it all, the foundation of athleticism. It can be developed through a systematic approach to athlete development. It is imperative to look for every opportunity to incorporate elements of athleticism in all aspect of training. Specific sport skills are a combination of patterns of complex motor programs. They are patterns that can be reproduced when we tap into the wisdom of the body. Though experiencing all different patterns of movement we learn to let things happen. We learn to let the motor program run. We cue an action that will result in a “chain reaction” of efficient movement. We need to emphasize a free play approach that results in fluidity and improvisational skills. What has caused this? There are several factors: Early specialization in one sport is a serious problem that has contributed to the decline of athleticism. The broader range of motor skill developed through free play and exposure to many varied motor programs is a big limiting factor. The choice is to produce better all around athletes or produce highly specialized one-sport specialists with very narrow skill ranges. Ultimately the goal is to produce the best athlete possible with a rich repertoire of motor skills to select from to better execute the specific sport skill. Biased one sided training with an emphasis on one or two components of performance rather than a blend. The components of performance, and therefore training are: speed, strength, stamina, suppleness, skill and recovery. There is a synergistic relationship between all components therefore all components must be trained during all phases of the year in varying combinations Monkey See – Monkey Do Syndrome. Just because an athlete has been successful with a particular training method does not mean the method is the best or should be copied. It is my experience that many athletes are successful in spite of, not because of their training. Make sure that what you are doing is based on sound training principles and a good progression. Above all make sure it fits the athletes you are presently working with. “Nobody gets hurt, but nobody gets better.” Training that is so conservative or narrow that the athlete is never challenged will not produce results. The justification for many machine-oriented strength training programs is that they are “safe.” When in fact, because they fail to challenge the athleticism of the athlete they might actually predispose the athlete to injury. It is always easy and convenient to look to the “Good old days” as being better. The simple fact is that before the advent of specialization athletes learned and competed in several sports. It was not unusual to see a high school athlete compete in three or four sports. This was not so bad. The athlete may not have been as good early, but once they did chose to specialize they had a broader base of motor skills to draw upon to enhance their chosen sport skill. Sometimes it is good to look back to gain perspective to move ahead. We cannot go backward, but we must look for ways to enhance athleticism that has been lost due to early specialization. Training must have a purpose that will transfer the training to the event. With a base of athleticism specific training will be even more purposeful. The basis of training athleticism is rooted in running, jumping and throwing which encompass the whole spectrum of human movement. The body is a kinetic chain. Athleticism training is all about linkage – it is all about how all the parts of the chain working together in harmony to produce smooth efficient patterns of movement. The brain does not recognize individual muscles. It recognizes patterns of movement, which consist of the individual muscles working in harmony to produce movement. Understanding and training athleticism is a challenging process. It demands creativity and imagination. It is often contrary to conventional wisdom as represented in current mainstream sport science research that emphasizes specificity and measurable outcomes. Do not be limited by conventional wisdom use it as a staring point and move forward while thinking and acting outside the box. You and your athletes will enjoy the day to day challenges of training more with the results being a higher injury free performance level.
Endurance Training Systems
The systematic approach is the key. In the past there were many great coaches who had well defined systems. A key ingredient to any good system is time. It takes time to develop all the capacities necessary for success in distance running. Bill Bowerman, the late great coach from the University of Oregon, is a great example of a coach with a system who had the big picture in mind. He knew that it would take time for his runner's to mature. His program was very progressive in that the runner’s mileage and overall workload was very controlled so that the runners could handle the workload. His hard/easy principles definitely incorporated the concept of recovery. He understood that the body needed time to recover from hard training efforts so he scheduled easy days to allow for adaptation. His system was an eclectic system that borrowed from other systems that he studied and adapted to the American environment and the younger developing collegiate athlete. Arthur Lydiard, the famous distance coach from New Zealand, is known for the marathon phase of training. No doubt that this base phase of his training was important, but I have always felt that the most important phase of his program was the hill training phase. This is where his runners developed the specific strength for the powerful strides that led to the ability to handle a fast pace and also deliver a punishing finishing kick. He does not believe in weight training but this hill phase accomplished that purpose. Interestingly his system produced top ranked runners from the 800 meters to the marathon with runner who had a wide variety of natural talent. This versatility is the true measure of an endurance training system. Percy Cerutty, the eccentric Australian coach, developed a system that put a heavy emphasis on the natural aspects of running. It incorporated a lot of resistance running in the sand dunes. Running barefoot as well a big emphasis on lifting relatively heavy weights. In many respects Cerutty was ahead of his in that his emphasis was on power as well as endurance. Franz Stampfl in Australia and Mihaly Igloi in Hungary and latter the United States both had systems that depended quite heavily on Interval Training. Stampfl coached Roger Bannister to the first sub Four Minute mile. It is Interesting to note that Bannister, because of his medical school demands, only had one hour a day to train. That is one of the advantages of interval training; with limited time it is possible to prepare for the intensity of the demands of racing. It is a very efficient system of training. It was first researched and perfected in Germany in the 1930’s by Dr. Woldemar Gerschler in Frieburg.
Middle Distance & Distance Running & Speed
Speed First! Yes you must work on speed first and foremost. It must be part of every training cycle. I find it quite amusing when I hear a runner say that I have been working on base work, but I have not started speed work yet. The problem with that approach is that they are not training to run fast, they are training to run far, and they hope that the fast will come. The inevitable result is undue soreness and greater risk of injury because of the abrupt change in the training program when they do start to run fast. The key is to never get too far away from running fast. It should be part of the first training cycle of the year and be a part of each subsequent training cycle. Speed development work can be as simple as sprint drills, light acceleration drills, or simply finishing each run with 8 –10 x 100 meter fast strides. It may be a coaching cliché, but the winner of the race is the person who slows down the least. Therefore I think it is helpful to think of running at a percentage of the individual maximum velocity. The goal in training is to continually strive to run longer at a higher percentage of peak velocity. Rather than focusing on pace, it is better to focus on distribution of effort. Races at any level are seldom run at the physiological ideal of even pace. The goal should be to distribute the effort as efficiently as possible over the entire race distance. It is interesting to note that the highly successful Moroccan school of distance running clearly acknowledges the importance of speed and power in distance running performance by their talent identification test. They test a short sprint from a standing start, a middle distance race and the standing long jump.